Voltaire, that great French philosopher who did not like Islam or any religion, coined the word ‘Islamism’ to replace the pejorative word ‘Mohamedinism’.
In The Song of Roland, a French Christian poet, denounced Muslims for their worship of Trinity: Muhammad and his two devils (Apollin and Termagant). Humans loathe any challenge to their closely-held beliefs; medieval priests of France used base tactics by “Trinity of Devils” to rally their illiterate masses against Muslims. Of course, Muslims were also depicted as blacks – a manipulation of innate human bias for a particular shade of colour.
In today’s world that understands political views only in terms of ideology, Islam has been boxed in the Song of Roland, again. Hence ‘Islamism’.
If Islamism is meant to be Political Islam (establishment of government/society by an elite group, in accordance with the Shari’ah), then Muslims may refer to this period of their history as ‘Ihyaa’ (Revival) Movements.
Failed Overture with Colonialists
Taraddud Movements in the mid-Eighteenth century attempted to modernise Islam. But that failed, as Europe had no desire for Enlightenment of any of the inferior races. Islam, a perceived historic rival, had no chance.
The Betrayal by ‘Two Events’
Muslims thinkers of the time attempted to work within the established rules of Shari’ah to achieve their political goals. What propelled them to such action was not only the failure of Taraddud Movements but also perceived betrayal of the Colonialists in the Middle East:
Skye-Picot Deal
1915: In a secret treaty, Britain, France and Tsarist Russia agreed to split empires of the Central powers. The defeated German and Austrian Empires were split into independent self-governing nationalities, while the Ottoman Empire was colonised between Britain and France.
However, in public, the British gave assurances to the Arabs of their independence from the Ottomans and the creation of an “Arab Kingdom”.
1917: As the Tsarist Russia went through Communist Revolution (that banished religion and classed society), the radicals exposed the secret treaties of the Allied hypocrisy. To pacify their populations, the imperial powers now promised the Arabs a rule by the native population under “colonial guidance” – a guidance where Muslim natives had no say in the running of their affairs.
1920: England and France divided (at San Remo Conference, Italy) the Ottoman territories: Transjordan (that included Palestine) and Iraq were assigned as to Britain, while Syria and Lebanon to France. The League of Nations, run by Britain and France, formally approved these mandates in 1922.
Balfour Declaration
November 1917: To woo the Zionists into the war effort, the British endorsed the creation of a Jewish Homeland in Palestine, and incorporated the ‘Jewish Legion’ into British Army fighting against the Ottoman Empire.
1919-23: After the end of the Great War, Zionist organisations brought in ~40,000 Jews from Eastern Europe. The sale of native land by feudal Arab landlords fuelled unrest by the landlessness Arab peasants. The British took the easy path and separated Jordan from Falasteen in response to Arab resentment. The scene was set for the creation of Palestine.
Revivalist Movements
The revivalists claim their inspiration comes from an hadeeth calling for people to be organised. To the Sufis, they are soft-Salafis. Salafists have a love-hate relationship with them. For the non-Muslims, they are far-right extremists. While the Udwaanis taunt them as the compromisers.
Taking their inspiration from the Worker’s Movements of Europe which called for equality and liberty, young educated Muslims (comprising less than 5% of Muslim population) began organising movements to help decolonize their lands. Inconsistencies in the Taraddud Movements and Islamic Socialism made them turn to their Islamic traditions for inspiration.
Aware of Saudi state and Salafism, they began to question the Taqleed. However, unlike the Salafis, they did not discard the principles of Usul al-Fiqh; they wanted to work within the established limits of the Shari’ah. Thus started the battle of hearts and minds.
Battle of Hearts and Minds
It is believed that two personalities drove the revivalist movement: Hasan al-Banna in Egypt and Maulana Maududi in Indian Subcontinent. However, there is more to the soundbites.
Arabia:
Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi (1855-1902)
An orphan of a scholarly family in Aleppo, he was influenced by al-Afghani and Abdu’, and edited al-Manar with Rida. He represents the transition of an educated Taraddud-Muslim society to ‘Ihyaa’ mood (though in Arabia, a fair number of educated Muslims walked into the arms of communist ideology, in the name of ‘Scientific Socialism‘).
In 1899 al-Kawakibi moved to Cairo, and through his extensive writings, including Tabai al-Istibdaad wa-Masari al-Isti’baad (Characteristics of Despotism and Demise of Enslavement) and Umm-al-Qura (The Mother of Villages; aka Makkah), he blamed Muslim backwardness due to Sufi superstitious, Ottoman rule that favoured Sufism, blind belief in Taqleed, lack of Ijtihad and scientific endeavour, etc.
His call for the resurgence of Islam was peculiar: via Arab unity, fall of Ottoman authority, the formation of Mu’tamar al-Nahda al-Islamiyyah (Congress of Islamic Revival). He theorised that the Mu’tamar should be run by an elite (a small group of renowned and sincere people) who adopts Qanun (Legislation) for regulation of a permanent body entitled the Jam’iayat Ta’leem al-Muwahhideen (Society for the Education of the Unitarians).
Makkah and Arabic language were central to such a project of his. However, he failed to include how those ‘sincere people’ will be elected to such esteemed positions in society. The Muslims have struggled with that omission since.
Muhammad Rashid Rida (1865-1935)
Exposed to al-Urwa al-Wuthqa and ‘Abdu, Raashid Rida published his thoughts in al-Manar from 1898. By connecting the lack of appreciation of sciences to the contemporary practice of Shari’ah, he called for Ijtihaad. He condemned superstitious Sufis and the blind followers of Taqleed.
By his interpretation of Quran, he believed the possibility of Evolution of Man, allowed the use of usury in certain circumstances, explained the microorganisms as Jinns, etc. Al-Manar spread his ideas across the Arab world, empowering the Salafis – who disdained the practice of Sufism and Taqleed in the uneducated masses and loathed the unhinged French revolutionary ideals.
In the 1920s, Rida actively participated in World Muslim Congresses with a view to organising Muslim nations into an effective global political organisation. His attempts failed repeatedly: Arabs were confused as to the suitability of Salafi, nationalistic or socialist ideals. And Indian Muslim’s demand for political votes based on the Muslim population was problematic: both Indian and Indonesian Muslims were then ruled by British and Dutch colonialists, and a general Muslim vote would have reduced the Arabs to a minority in any such Congress.
Hassan Ahmed al-Banna (1906-1949)
Son of a Hanbali Mu’izzin, by 1927, al-Banna became a primary school teacher. Living in Ismailia, over the Suez Canal, he saw not only cultural impact of British on his lands but economic and intellectual backwardness of his peoples. Ikhwan al-Muslimeen (Muslim Brothers) was born.
Breaking with Taqleedi-tradition, he took his ideas and message outside the mosques and into the Coffee Houses. Soon he and his followers were not only talking Islam but giving material guidance and help, all without any patronisation of Egyptian elite. Islam was becoming democratic.
From 1936 onwards, the MB prayed, collected funds and agitated for their government to help Palestine from falling into the hands of the Zionist Movement. In 1948 when the Zionists began seizing Palestinian lands, some members volunteered as defenders.
Back in Egypt, the government could not handle them: assets were seized, members thrown in jail and MB itself was banned. When one its members assassinated the Egyptian PM; al-Banna condemned them as udwaanis. Next year, al-Banna himself was assassinated.
Ikhwan al-Muslimeen
Today MB has a presence in all of the Arab lands, either derided or persecuted by the elite but respected by the masses. They have provided dignity to the poor, raised literacy, gave charity, and built networks for economic development.
What they lack is consistent application of Shari’ah. Appealing to human emotions, they have won the hearts and minds of many Muslims. However, the lack of congruent and transparent policies makes them a suspect in the eyes of the elite. Hence the resistance, which reaches the level of paranoia.
The Indian Subcontinent:
Shibli Nomaani (1857-1914)
Influenced by Syed Ahmed, and after a long stay at Aligarh Muslim University, Shibli left Aligarh Muslim University to serve the princely Hyderabad State, under the British Rule.
Under his influence, Osmania University of Hyderabad adopted Urdu as the medium of instruction (India’s first university to adopt an Indian language as the medium of its instruction in higher studies).
In 1908, he left Hyderabad and went to Lucknow to become the principal of Nadwat-ul-‘Uloom (Nadwa), bringing his reforms in teaching and curriculum. He died within 5 years, when Indian Muslims faced a future of uncertainty and many became pessimist regarding the future of India.
Abul ‘Ala Maududi (1903-1979)
In 1920s, as a young man, he edited al-Jam’iah, the newspaper of Jam’iat al-Ulama. By 1937 he left the JU for their lack of political activism. In 1941, he formed Jam’iat Islami, hoping to bring Islamic (and thus political) awareness in masses.
Since less than 5% of Indian Muslims were literate, his message had a very narrow base. And when India was partitioned in 1947, the Jam’iat was split too.
The Indian JI
The idea of making India a Muslim state, through peaceful activism via taking part in the political process proved to be very ambitious for Indian JI. Without ever winning a legislative political position in India, IJI remains on the scene as a pressure group, with strong social/relief activism.
Due to their anti-superstition stance, the illiterate Sufi-oriented Muslims never warmed to it. Many educated Muslim youth, however, were dissuaded from joining JI not only to due to opposition from the Maslaki Ulema for JI’s inconsistent fiqhi practices but also the quixotic policy of making India Muslim by a ballot.
The Pakistani JI
When PJI took part in 1970-general elections after two decades of activism, it won only four seats each in the national and provincial assemblies. Since then it has only seen a decline.
During the height of Cold War, as the Soviet Union began intruding into Aghan politics next door, the Pakistani military propped up Maududi against the spread of socialism in Pakistani society. PJI, instead of churning policies, became a tool in geopolitics.
Bangladesh JI
In 1971, the Bangladeshi branch of PJI was born into a vortex of Bangladeshi Civil War (supported by the then-Socialist India and the Soviet Union). The socialists demanded separation from Pakistan, alleging lack of economic development of Bangladesh (vis-a-vis Pakistan) and an imposition of a “foreign” language (Urdu vs Bengali).
PJI’s appeal was rather poor among Bangladeshis, due to its insistence on Urdu and support for Pakistan in the name of ‘unity of Muslims’. Post-independence, the JI was duly banned; its elite fled to Pakistan.
By 1975, the Bangladesh army took power and asserted an Islamic identity for Bangladesh. By 1979 the BJI was allowed to return, but had since played second fiddle to major parties. The Bangla elite remained socialist, though resisted Soviet (and Indian) diktats.
As the Soviet Union fell, the military dictatorship gave in to the democratic demands: BJI was one of the agitators, along with other eclectic elements.
Since 2006, BJI again became the target of Bangladeshi army for its religious affinity, paying a heavy price for agitation. As with other political revivalist parties, BJI fails to realise that its appeal to emotional (religion) and policies do not sit well with reason. Hence, repeated failures.
Indonesia:
Ahmad Dahlan (1868-1923)
In 1909, as an Imam and anti-colonialist, Ahmad joined Budi Utomo (Prime Philosophy), Indonesia’s first elitist political movement.
In 1912, as Sarekat Islam (Islamic Association) was beginning its trade-union activism, Ahmad founded Muhammadiyah (an educational organisation favoured by traders and craftsmen) that rapidly spread to the Outer Islands. In 1917, Aisyiyah – a women’s chapter – was added to the movement.
He opposed superstitions, Sufi rituals and Taqleed but was fundamentally tolerant of others. Instead of politics, he used educational institutes as his means to these lofty ends, and may have been way more successful than the Jami’at.
Agus Salim (1884-1954)
Called ‘Ulama Intelek’ (Intellectual Ulama) by Indonesians, Agus was well-versed in Dutch and Islamic studies. As an anti-Colonialist, he pinned Indonesia’s lack of political rights to its economic backwardness. Post-independence, he remained Indonesia’s Foreign Minister till his death in 1954.
He remains a lone figure among ‘Ulama who successfully charted out a career outside of the political rally or madarasa in the 20th century.
Sekarmaji Kartosoewirjo (1905-1962)
A drop-out of a Medical College, Sekarmaji was the product of Sarekat Islam. After forcing the communist members out of their party in 1923, they formed Partai Sarekat Islam (Islamic Association Party) by 1929.
By 1937, he formed the Partai advocating the future Islamic State of Indonesia. Rising against the Dutch rule, he allied his party with the Japanese invasion in 1942. By 1949 he established Negara Islam Indonesia (Islamic State of Indonesia) in Western Java, and attacked the native Indonesian Republican Army. In a decade, they spread to Aceh and South Sulawesi.
After three years of negotiations (1959–1962), Indonesia accepted Aceh as an autonomous province with special rights. In Java, Sekarmaji continued his struggle, was caught in 1962 and executed.
Nahdat ul-Ulama
In 1926, in response to Salafi conquest of Hijaaz and concerned about the imposition of ban on Madhaahib, a committee from Indonesia took their concerns to Makkah. After being reassured by Ibn Saud, an organisation was formed headed by its chairman – Hasym Asy’ari (Haashim Ash’ari).
In 1937, NU joined Muhammidayah to form Majlis Islam A’laa Indonesia (Islamic Council of All Indonesia). When the Japanese invaded in 1942, Masyumi (Consultative Council of Indonesian Muslims) was created by the Japanese to manage Islam, with Haashim as its chairman. In 1945, Indonesia declared its independence and entered into armed struggle with the Dutch; Masyumi agreed with the nationalists.
Post-Independence, Maysumi became one of the largest political party, winning elections and providing prime ministers. However, by 1952, NU left Masyumi to form Indonesian League of Muslims with other like-minded organisations.
In 1955-elections, the Islamist vote was divided as Maysumi came second (dominating the rural areas) and NU was pushed to the third (dominating Java) position. The election was won by the nationalists (inspired by Kemalists of Turkey), supported by the communists.
1957: In the Constitutional Assembly, though NU joined Masyumi (and others) they could muster only 45% of total seats. With a hung assembly, the country faced instability with the demands of Kemalist-nationalists and communists.
Masyumi
In 1958, Indonesian President Sukarno dissolved the elected government, seeking a unity government. When Masyumi members joined the rebellion against him, it was banned. Indonesia became a socialist state until the 1990s.
Since 1970s Masyumi returned under various names, with an overt goal to govern by Shari’ah. They have remained a minor party.
NU
1965: Sukarno was replaced by another General, Suharto. To NU’s relief, Suharto aligned himself away from the Soviet Union and the communists. Though the General was not keen to agree to the Islamist’s demands either.
1973: NU became part of Partai Persatuan Pembangunan (United Development Party). The PPP came second, behind government-sponsored Golkar organization. By 1984, NU accepted nationalist-sponsored ideology of Pancasila, calling it a ‘noble compromise’.
1997: Indonesia faced the Asian Financial Crisis; money flew out of Indonesia in billions. In a year’s time Suharto resigned.
1999: In the first free elections since 1955, NU’s chairman Abdur-Rahman Waheed (grandson of NU founder) was elected President of Indonesia. However, within two years he was deposed, for being a weak leader. The NU has since split: now increasingly irrelevant.
Armed Struggle
After 1945, as decolonization began, the Muslim socialists filled the vacuum under the guidance of Soviet Union. The revivalist jamaats, not backed by the powerful nor skilled enough to interact with the modern world, were stuck. When some of their members took up arms, the revivalists were ruthlessly suppressed. To their credit, they took that on their chin.
Since 1979, that changed.
